A quick-start guide to the Scala 3 programming language.
This guide won’t include steps to set-up a Scala build environment locally, so I encourage you to follow along using Scastie, an online Scala integrated development environment (IDE). Scastie makes it easy to add library dependencies and get code written and tested quickly. Scala can be a hassle to install successfully and I’d much prefer to get you right into coding. If you are interested in setting up a Scala environment then I’ll have some helpful resources at the bottom of the page.
Functions
Functions let us define re-usable blocks of expressions and statements that can be modified using parameters. We can define functions in two ways: using the def or val keywords. A function definition contains four components: the name, the parameters, the return type, and the body.
The following snippet contains an example function defined in either style.
def myFunction(parameter1: String, parameter2: Int): Boolean =
parameter1 == "example" || parameter2 == 100
// or
val myFunctionValue: (String, Int) => Boolean = (parameter1, parameter2) =>
parameter1 == "example" || parameter2 == 100
// myFunctionValue: Function2[String, Int, Boolean] = repl.MdocSession$MdocApp$$Lambda$8708/739628048@224d996a
All function parameters must have a provided type like String and Int for parameter1 and parameter2 above. Although not required, the return type should also be provided, like Boolean.
In general, the def syntax is preferred because it’s less verbose, but you’ll find reasons to use either one.
The // syntax from the snippet means that any comments on the same line and to the right are not compiled as Scala code.
Higher Order Functions
Functions are also values and can be provided to other functions as parameters and to types as fields. Function values can be called the same way you would a function defined with def or val.
def combineStrings(myList: List[String]): String =
myList.mkString(" ")
def splitAndApply(input: String, splitOn: String, f: List[String] => String): String =
f(input.split(splitOn).toList)
splitAndApply("hello/world", "/", combineStrings) // "hello world"
// res0: String = "hello world"
This example defines a function combineStrings that places spaces between each text in the provided list myList. Another function named splitAndApply will split the given input text any time the given splitOn text appears in input. After splitting, the new list of split phrases is provided to the given function f which determines how to re-join the split phrases. Finally, splitAndApply is called with an example text hello/world and the splitting symbol /. The function combineStrings is provided as a value to the splitAndApply method to combine the split phrases using a space. Altogether, this example yields the text hello world.
Types
Types can be defined in several ways depending on the use-case. I'll go over the basic constructs you'll want to use most-often and leave the rest for you to find as you need them.
Standard Library Types And Collections
The following types are automatically provided by the standard library and can be used without additional imports. There’s many more than this list available to you, but these are a good place to start.
Int— a number negative or positiveBoolean—trueorfalseString— a list of characters representing text, like“carrots”Double— a double-precision floating point number, something like101.111Option— an optional value with two casesSome(value)andNoneEither— a value with two casesLeftandRightwith types for each caseList— a collection of items with a provided type, instantiated with the syntaxList(1, 2, 3, 4)Map— a collection of one-to-one key and value pairs, instantiated using a special function/syntaxMap("a" -> 1, "b" -> 2")
Case Classes
In general, the case class should be your go-to type for constructing data. A case class can be used to define an immutable type with automatic pattern matching built-in and several other goodies.
case class Videogame(title: String, year: Int, platforms: List[String])
This snippet creates a new type called Videogame with the fields title, year, and platforms. Each field must have a type assigned to it. A new instance of Videogame can be created with the format of Videogame(”Mario Kart 8 Deluxe”, 2014, List(”Switch”)).
Although case classes can contain related functionality in the form of functions and other values, it is best to avoid adding logic beyond it’s basic fields if possible. In functional programming, types should be independent of the logic that can be used to operate on them. However, there is sometimes logic that is vital to the domain of the type regardless of context. When you have a function that will almost always be called on a type when the type is used, place it in the body of the case class.
For example, the following code contains another case class with a method.
case class Car(make: String, model: String) {
def show: String = s"Car { make: $make, model: $model } "
}
The method can then conveniently be called using the code Car("Toyota”, “GR86”).show yielding a nice visual representation “Car { make: Toyota, model: GR86 }”. The s operator used in the snippet is a little bit of magic called string interpolation that is commonly used for formatting text.
Opaque Types
Often it’s convenient to use types from the standard library and dependency libraries directly in your code. For example, String, List, and Map. However, there is a downside. Your library or app code now has a direct dependency on that type and can’t be changed. I encourage you instead to try and use the opaque type. Opaque types let you mask an existing type with your own symbol, thus allowing you to modify the underlying type implementation without affecting your provided interface.
For example, the following snippet contains an opaque type representing a list of names. The only functions I’ve provided for this new type are getLastNames, getFirstNames, and show. If in the future I decide that I don’t want to use a list of tuples to represent my names, then clients of my library won’t be affected (including my own downstream code).
opaque type Names = List[(String, String)]
def firstNames(names: Names): List[String] =
names.map(_._1)
def lastNames(names: Names): List[String] =
names.map(_._2)
def show(names: Names): String =
names
.map(name => s"${name._2}, ${name._1}")
.mkString("\n")
It may be that in the future I’ve decided to change the type of Names from List[(String, String)] to List[Name] where Name is defined as case class Name(first: String, second: String). Downstream code will not see any impact from the underlying type change.
Sealed Traits
Complex union abstract data types can be created using the sealed trait syntax. A sealed trait defines the root of a type tree with a finite number of cases. An example of a union type common to every programming language is the Boolean type. The following code defines a custom Boolean2 tree. I've added a 2 post-fix to the type definitions to avoid colliding with the standard library Boolean type.
sealed trait Boolean2
case class True() extends Boolean2
case class False() extends Boolean2
val trueValue: Boolean2 = True()
// trueValue: Boolean2 = True()
val falseValue: Boolean2 = False()
// falseValue: Boolean2 = False()
Many types you encounter will be defined using the sealed trait with case class structure. Here’s another example, a functional linked list. As in the union example, I've added a 2 post-fix to all the types to avoid type collisions with the List type from the standard library.
sealed trait List2[A]
case class Empty2[A]() extends List2[A]
case class NonEmpty2[A](head: A, tail: List2[A]) extends List2[A]
val emptyList: List2[Int] = Empty2()
// emptyList: List2[Int] = Empty2()
val nonEmptyList: List2[Int] = NonEmpty2(1, NonEmpty2(2, Empty2()))
// nonEmptyList: List2[Int] = NonEmpty2(
// head = 1,
// tail = NonEmpty2(head = 2, tail = Empty2())
// )
This List2 snippet defines a list that can have two cases:
Empty2— the list is empty and contains no valuesNonEmpty2— the list has at least one item (the head) and may contain more items (the tail)- The tail of the
NonEmptylist can then either beEmptyorNonEmpty. And the pattern repeats itself.
- The tail of the
Enums
Another way to define a union type is as an enum. Enums are especially useful when you have a simple union type with no recursion. The Boolean2 example from earlier can be re-written in a simpler form using enum.
enum BooleanAsEnum {
case True()
case False()
}
The only difference between the enum and sealed trait syntax is that enum types can’t be used to define higher-order types like List and are intended only for simple type enumerations. In general, it’s best practice to use enums unless you need your root type to contain type parameters like List.
Companion Objects
A companion object is a singleton type containing helpful operations to perform on the accompanying type. The best functions for a companion object are constructors that create new instances of the accompanying type, often with some domain validation. These constructors can have any name you’d like, but common names are make or create. There is also a special companion function apply that can be defined and called as if instantiating the type directly.
object Videogame {
def make(title: String, year: Int, platforms: List[String]): Option[Videogame] =
if title.isEmpty then None
else Some(Videogame(title, year, platforms))
def apply(title: String, year: Int): Videogame =
Videogame(title, year, List.empty[String])
}
// `make` function now available on `Videogame` type
val granTurismo: Option[Videogame] = Videogame.make("Gran Turismo 7", 2022, List("PS5"))
// granTurismo: Option[Videogame] = Some(
// value = Videogame(
// title = "Gran Turismo 7",
// year = 2022,
// platforms = List("PS5")
// )
// )
val unreleased: Option[Videogame] = Videogame.make("", 2025, List.empty[String])
// unreleased: Option[Videogame] = None
// equivalent to Videogame.apply
val diablo: Videogame = Videogame("Diablo", 2023)
// diablo: Videogame = Videogame(
// title = "Diablo",
// year = 2023,
// platforms = List()
// )
The above snippet defines two additional constructors to the Videogame type, make and apply. The make constructor performs some additional validation on the provided parameters and returns a None value if the input is invalid. The apply method lets callers provide just the title and year of the videogame and provides a default of List.empty[String] for the platforms field. Providing additional apply functions in a companion object can be a convenient way to provide common defaults for users. In general, the apply method should always return just the companion type and not any validation-related type like Option or Either.
Pattern Matching
Values can be deconstructed and matched using the match and case syntax. Matching can be especially helpful for determining the particular union or enumeration sub-case that a value represents. For example, we can match on our List2 snippet to perform a different step depending on if the list is empty or contains items.
def isEmpty[A](list: List2[A]): Boolean =
list match {
case Empty2() => true
case NonEmpty2(_, _) => false
}
In the above snippet, we use the _ syntax to ignore particular values of the match. We can also provide local names for fields of the matched case.
def sum(list: List2[Int]): Int =
list match {
case Empty2() => 0
case NonEmpty2(first, remaining) => first + sum(remaining)
}
This snippet uses pattern matching to define a recursive function which calculates the sum of the list. If the list contains items, we add the value of the first item to the sum of the remaining items. If the list is empty, then we default to the value 0.
Typeclasses
Typeclasses define a set of standard functionality for a category of types. For example, you may want a function that operates on any collection of items without needing duplicated logic for each collection that users need. This example is common in functional programming, but is more in-depth than what we’ve seen so far.
trait Collection[F[_]] {
extension [A](collection: F[A])
def modifyItems[B](f: A => B): F[B]
}
given Collection[List] with
extension [A](list: List[A])
def modifyItems[B](f: A => B): List[B] = list.map(f)
given Collection[Option] with
extension [A](option: Option[A])
def modifyItems[B](f: A => B): Option[B] =
option match {
case Some(item) => Some(f(item))
case None => None
}
extension [F[_]](collection: F[Int])(using Collection[F])
def addOneToAllItems: F[Int] =
collection.modifyItems((item: Int) => item + 1)
List(1, 2, 3).addOneToAllItems
// res1: List[Int] = List(2, 3, 4)
extension (option: Option[Int])
def addOne: Option[Int] = option.addOneToAllItems
Some(1).addOne
// res2: Option[Int] = Some(value = 2)
None.addOne
// res3: Option[Int] = None
The Collection typeclass above requires that implementations provide the logic for the modifyItems function. The F[_] syntax specifies that overriding types must have a single type parameter, where the _ is a placeholder for the collection’s item type. The placeholder F type can then be used when defining the required functions for Collection instances. The extension syntax is used to define functions on types that can be used as if they were defined on the types themselves. Any type with a Collection instance in scope automatically has the modifyItems function available. In the case of the snippet above, we could write List(1, 2, 3, 4).modifyItems(num ⇒ num + 2) to update the list to contain all elements with 2 added.
In order to use the Collection syntax on various types, typeclass instances need to be defined using given … with syntax. Instances have been defined in the snippet for List and Option types. Although they are very different types with different shapes, they both contain collections of items. The case of a List might be more clear than with Option, but an Option is a collection of zero or one item. If the Option contains no item (None) then the item doesn’t need to be transformed by the modifyItems function. If it contains a single item (Some) then it will be modified by the function value provided to modifyItems.
Finally, the addOneToAllItems function extends any type with a Collection instance to include the function as a new method on any values of the collection type. With Collection instances available for both List and Option, we can call addOneToAllItems on both types without needing to explicitly define the extensions for both List and Option. I've defined a special extension method addOne for the Option[Int] type because typeclasses are only available for the specific types that have instances. The Collection typeclass must be invoked with the Option trait instead of using the Some and None sub-types.
Typeclasses are powerful tools for abstracting common and repetitious operations to many different kinds of types. Even a small typeclass with one function, like Collection, can be used as a base to build more complex functions across many types.
Additional Resources
This post has only begun to scratch the surface of the syntax and structures available in Scala programs, though the ones I’ve gone through provide a strong platform that should allow you to write many types of programs and applications. I recommend tinkering with the structures discussed here first and then expanding your knowledge using the following resources as you wish to do more in your programs.
Scala-Lang Docs
The official Scala-Lang documentation site contains everything from this post and more.
SDK-Man
Manages JDK instances on your computer and allows changing JDKs on the fly. There are many versions and distributions available, but any of the v17 JDKs are good choices for basic programs.
Rock The JVM
Rock The JVM is an amazing set of tutorials and guides to learning pieces of the Scala language. I learned most of my fundamental knowledge on Scala from Daniel Ciocirlan's courses.
- https://rockthejvm.com/
- https://www.youtube.com/@rockthejvm https://www.udemy.com/user/daniel-ciocirlan/
This Week In Scala
A weekly newsletter rounding up all the new library improvements, releases, and news from the week. The newsletter is a good way to keep up to date with what’s happening in the community.